Learning is a complex process that starts from the moment a person opens his/her eyes to life and continues until his/her life ends.
Behavioral changes that occur at a certain rate in a person’s life as a result of interacting with people and events around him are called learning (Gür, 2013).
The first case of learning disability was reported in 1896 by Dr. It was published by Morgan with the diagnosis of “congenital word blindness”. Morgan determined that 14-year-old Percy was as healthy as his peers, but could not read any words correctly and could not write without errors. He reported that he even wrote the name of this case as “precy” instead of “Percy”, but that he could read 785,852,017 immediately, and that he had no problem in arithmetic. Morgan suggested that this may be due to the inability to store written and printed words in visual memory (Cited by Korkmazlar, 2011).
In the 1920s, in the United States, Dr. Samuel Orton and his friends worked with children who had no physical problems and had difficulties in learning to read and write, although they were considered normal mentally, and they named this situation as “Strephosymbolia”. (Act. Korkmazlar, 2016).
This concept, which is translated as “Rotated Symbols” or “mirror image”, can be given as an example in the figure below. (Korkmazlar,2011)
In the second quarter of the 1900s, it was suggested by researchers that cases of learning disability may result from the destruction of the brain, which is the administrative center of the human body, and that it may be a neurological problem. It is predicted that the brain damage of these children, who do not look much different from normal, is at a mild level, and the diagnosis of “minimal brain damage” has been started to be expressed for this condition (Clements 1973, Silver, 1993, cited in Korkmazlar, 2011).
However, since brain damage could not be proven in further studies, the opinion that the impairment in CNS functions paved the way for learning difficulties prevailed and the term “Minimal Brain Dysfunction-MBD” was used. The definition made by Clements for MBD in 1966 is as learning and/or behavior problems in children with normal or above-normal intelligence levels, which are noticed by the difference in CNS functions (Cited by Korkmazlar, 2011).
This term has long been used for many neurologically based problems. Hyperactivity, attention problem, impulsivity, problems at school, emotional problems (Korkmazlar, 2011).
DEFINITION
Samuel Kirk is the first person to make this definition in the field of Special Education. He used the concept of Specific Learning Disability for the first time in the United States in 1962 (Çalış S, Karaca DT, Karaca O,Yiğit G, 2018).
In the laws prepared for children in need of special education in the United States, it is stated that learning difficulties are a disorder in mental processes involving the use and understanding of oral and/or written language (Cited by Korkmazlar, 2011).
If learning is considered to be the acquisition of knowledge in its purest form, situations where difficulties are experienced in the process of acquiring knowledge can be called learning difficulties (Gür, 2013).
CLASSIFICATION
In the DSM V Diagnostic Criteria Reference Manual, Specific Learning Disability is specified as three sub-headings.
• Reading significantly different from one’s peers; misreading words, reading slowly and stuttering, understanding the part of reading (dyslexia)
• Significantly different from one’s peers when the person’s expression is written; words, irregular spaces between letters, misspellings of letters, incorrect punctuation marks, (dysgraphia)
• Significantly different from one’s peers in math skills; Differences in the perception of numbers, arithmetic memorization problems (dyscalculia) American Psychiatric Association,2013)
CAUSES
Brain Damage : Factors that may occur during the baby’s journey into the world
Hereditary factors: From researchers some emphasized that 25-60% of young people and children diagnosed with learning disorders have hereditary factors (Korkmazlar, 2011).
Neurological dysfunctions: Some of the researchers suggested that functional impairment in more than one area affects learning disability and that the learning process can be explained in 4 stages (Altuntaş, 2010).
a. The input phase is the input and perception of incoming information and stimuli into the brain with the sense organs. These can cause visual, auditory, spatial and tactile problems. Letters can be understood in reverse (like bd, 6-9, flour). The whole word can be misunderstood. (not a ram, not a lot and not a house) Confusing directions is common (Korkmazlar,2011)
b. Processing (integration) phase: It is the recording, arrangement, understanding, processing and interpretation of incoming stimuli. Sequencing, abstraction, and organization occur at this stage. On the other hand, individuals with learning disabilities have problems in any and/or all of the mentioned processes. It is observed that the concepts of day, month and year and the order of the sounds in the alphabet are mixed.
c. Memory (storage) stage: It is the stage where the understood information is stored for reuse. Short-term memory impairment is common in cases of learning disabilities. Short-term auditory-visual memory disorders generally occur together.
d. Output stage: It is the sending of information as a message to various parts of the body (language, motor activity, cell, muscle, etc.) by the brain. If the person has a learning disability, he/she has difficulty in expressing himself/herself verbally, in activities such as reading, writing, cycling and playing ball.
Communication problems between hemispheres: Problems in left cerebral language functions can cause dyslexia. However, right hemisphere functions (place-direction, sequencing, concept of time, non-verbal communication) are equally important in literacy learning (Korkmazlar, 2011).
Problems in phonological functions: The most basic and smallest building block in the language system is the phoneme (sound). Recognition and understanding of the word is possible by the process of separating the word into its sounds, which takes place in the phonological part of the brain. (Example: k…e…d…i…cat). This happens automatically when using expressive language. While reading and speaking actions depend on the phonological process, it is an important distinguishing feature that speaking is natural and reading is learned later. The process of transforming letters into sounds is called reading, and dyslexic individuals have difficulty in doing this due to problems in phonological functions. However, these individuals have difficulties in perceiving and identifying stimuli and showing appropriate responses to them (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.). They can mix the shapes of similar letters (mixing the letters b, p and d), and write them in reverse (writing E instead of 3) (Demir, 2005). In auditory perception, they can express similar words (such as effort-anchor) differently (Altuntaş, 2010).
A typical Brain Asymmetry: In studies related to the causes of learning disabilities, right/left brain functions, dominance, and hand dominance relationships are also examined. One of the claims is that left-handed individuals with overdeveloped right hemispheres show superior abilities despite the fact that they have learning disabilities as a result of their limited abilities in these regions.
Metacognitive delay: A number of researchers have suggested that the delay in maturation in cognitive skills may be a factor in specific learning disabilities.
SYMPTOMS
Although it is known that every child has their own characteristics, it is possible to see the following symptoms in general in children with specific learning disabilities.
Intelligence levels are normal or above normal.
Some may be accompanied by hyperactivity, while in some cases hypoactive.
Attention spans are short, but dissipated quickly.
They cannot distinguish directions, they have difficulty in finding the place they are looking for.
Motor coordination and hand-eye coordination are weak. They may exhibit clumsy movements.
Has visual perception problems. They have difficulties in distinguishing visual figure-ground (skipping letters and lines)
Auditory perception problems are seen.
They have difficulty in parsing some of the letters. (bdp)
Has layout/editing issues.
Disorders in academic skills are a common condition.
Difficulty learning to read, slow and/or incorrect reading.
They have difficulty in understanding what they read.
They have spelling difficulties. Punctuation and spelling make mistakes. There are difficulties in learning mathematics and learning the multiplication tables.
Their things are messy and their time management is bad.
They cannot forget and remember the instructions they received.
Although some have delayed language development, they have difficulty in expressing themselves.
They cannot learn the time easily.
Social-emotional behavior problems are seen. They have the characteristics of acting without thinking (impulsivity-impulsivity). They encounter problems in getting along with their friends and communication. They cannot easily adapt to change (Cited by Korkmazlar, 2011).
DIAGNOSTIC METHODS
Psychiatric evaluation: The presence of psychopathology should be investigated and brought to light.
Medical evaluation: It should be examined whether there are medical factors affecting the learning ability of the person.
Psycho-pedagogical evaluation: It is the evaluation in which neuropsychological, mental and academic skills are examined. Interviews are held with people who are constantly around the child (mother, father, teacher). The situation of the person is determined by various tests that enable the emergence of the individual’s strengths and weaknesses. The most frequently used ones are WISC (Wisc-R intelligence scale for children), Bender-Gestalt Visual-Motor Perception Test, Peabody Picture-Word Test, Frostig Developmental Visual Perception Test.
Evaluation of the family: The attitudes, behaviors and expectations of the family; It refers to examining the negative effects of problems between spouses and/or family on the child’s academic status (Korkmazlar, 2011)
Today, psychiatrists are diagnosed by psychiatrists according to the DSM V book, which is used to classify mental health diseases. Accordingly, certain conditions are necessary for the diagnosis of specific learning disability to be made. The most important of these is that although necessary interventions are made to correct the situation, the problem must last for at least 6 months and at least one of the following symptoms must be present:
The person makes a lot of effort while reading aloud, reading words erratically and incorrectly,
Difficulty in understanding the text read,
Changes in letters while reading and/or writing words (omitting vowels and/or consonants, adding missing letters)
poor writing order, difficult to understand what he wrote,
having difficulty in performing arithmetic operations, having trouble distinguishing between big and small concepts,
Insufficient ability to make arithmetic reasoning, (DSM V Diagnostic Criteria Reference Manual).
EARLY DIAGNOSIS
As with all medically evaluated diseases and problems, early diagnosis is essential for specific learning disabilities. Significant differences can be detected by caregivers, mothers, fathers, grandmothers, and teachers compared to peers in the process covering the pre-school period (nursery, kindergarten and day care home). This period of rapid development should not be skipped. Necessary guidance should be made within the scope of needs and problems, and intervention and/or therapy should be started quite early (Altuntaş 2010, Demir 2005, Doğan 2012, Korkmazlar 2011).
According to a study conducted with individuals with specific learning disabilities, it was stated that only 6.6% of the diagnoses were correct, while 16.7% of them were considered normal and/or misdiagnosed. Statistically, the difference between the age at which the diagnosis was made (7;11) and the age at which the condition was noticed (6;9) was found to be significant (p<0.005).(Korkmazlar,2011).
THERAPY APPROACHES
Kephart Perceptual-Motor Program
Kephart argues that motor skills are the basis of learning. With this approach, it is aimed to develop small muscle, large muscle, audio-visual memory and body perception of individuals with specific learning disabilities. Tracing the midline, copying what you see, hand eye coordination, direction tracking visual skill activities; Major muscle-balance activities such as balance board, trampoline, walking stick can be given as examples in this program (Reynolds & Janzen, 2007, cited in Korkmazlar, 2011).
Getman’s Training Program:
According to Getman, the concept of perception goes through certain stages of development. First, innate reflexes (grabbing, moro reflex, tonic neck reflex, etc.), large muscle development (crawling, walking), small muscle development, hand-eye coordination, eye-motor development, speech-hearing coordination and perceptual development stages are completed. Afterwards, cognitive maturity is reached with the development of cognitive and abstract processes. Getman’s training program mostly includes general coordination, hand-eye coordination, balance, eye movements, shape perception, visual memory activities (Cited by Doğan, 2012).
Frostig Visual Perception Training Program:
Dr. The program developed by Marianne Frostig includes activities for the development of perception deficiencies. The program gives importance to visual-perception. The spontaneous realization of perceptual skills is possible with constant repetition. Frostig argues that for the acquisition of reading skill, it is not sufficient to distinguish only symbols, it is also necessary to establish a connection between letter-sound relationship. Reading comprehension of a person is realized with visual and auditory symbols and their semantic associations (Frostig, 1972, cited in Korkmazlar, 2016).
Another skill that is essential for perception is attention. It is possible for the individual to react to what he perceives by directing his attention to it. For example, learning the shape of the letter “b” is gained by paying attention to the direction in which the shape and lines of the letter are made. Developing the attention skills of individuals with specific learning difficulties will be positive for these gains.
In the Frostig educational approach, which is managed as a game, children are first given verbal instructions, and children who receive the instruction are expected to perform visual-motor activities. In this way, language skills, perception skills and motor skills are given by combining studies.
The training, which started with the preparatory work, includes activities aimed at improving body concept, body image, eye tracking and various body movements (Doğan, 2012).
Education Based on the Senses:
It is an educational program based on physical, visual and auditory senses. The child needs to see the letter, hear its name, express it, go over it with his finger and write it by saying. Literacy teaching is given together in this way (Gearheart 1986, Jones 1991, Myers and Hammill 1976, Shepherd and Uhry, 1993, cited in: Korkmazlar,2016).
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:
Piaget says that the child should react to sound between 2-6 months, and if he stopped making sounds around 6 months, it should be considered that there is a problem in auditory shopping. Every child learns in a certain order, step by step. A 60-month-old child should perceive the same and different situations in 9 out of 12 pictures. Failure to do this skill means a risk in terms of learning difficulties (Gang 1983; cited in Korkmazlar, 2016).
Ministry of National Education Special Learning Disability Support Education Program
The program is designed according to the general characteristics of individuals with specific learning disabilities who do not have a mental problem but who show significantly lower achievement in literacy or mathematics skills compared to their peers. has been prepared.
With the program:
1. Increasing the level of readiness for learning
2. Increasing reading and writing skills
3. Using mathematical concepts in daily life,
4. Comparison, problem solving, reasoning etc. It is aimed to increase the skills (MEB,2008)
DYSLEXIA
The cases of not recognizing words correctly or having impaired fluency or difficulty in expressing are called dyslexia (DSM V Diagnostic Criteria Reference Manual, 2013) .
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by correct and/or fluent recognition of words and signs of poor spelling (International Dyslexia Association, 2012).
CLINICAL APPEARANCE
When evaluated in terms of many features, they have features that seem to be the same as their peers.
Intelligence levels are normal and/or superior.
He has no neurological diseases.
They do not have any disadvantages in terms of socio-cultural environment, family structures, school-education factors.
However, they have difficulties in learning to read, learning to write, or both. The basic mental skills we call classification and/or discrimination can be complex for them. Upper-Bottom, Left-Right, bdp letters can be mixed by dyslexics and used interchangeably.
They can read and write words from the same semantic group called “Deep Dyslexia” interchangeably. (such as fork/spoon, carpet/rug, aunt/uncle.) They may skip some sounds in words and use them interchangeably (such as para-pra, ile-eli). Like letters, syllables can also be skipped and read interchangeably. In addition, dyslexics may not be able to read word groups because they write upside down and see them upside down. As in the movie “Every Child is Special”, everything is normal and reading can be realized with the mirror held (Every Child is Special, Aamir Khan, 2007). Comprehension and explanation of what they read, using punctuation marks can be stated as other difficulties they face. It should be kept in mind that every child is different from each other, and every dyslexic individual should not be expected to show these symptoms (Korkmazlar, 2011)
FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATION
Although the incidence is different in every society, 80% of people with specific learning difficulties are dyslexic. (Fielding-Barnsley, 2000:Act. Altuntaş,2010). Overall, dyslexia occurs in 10% of school-aged children. In different countries; Spain 3-4%, England and Scotland 5%, Scandinavian countries 10%, USA 4-15% and Canada 10-16% have dyslexic individuals. (Bingöl, 2003)
In a study conducted by Bingöl, this figure in our country was found to be 2% of school-age children (Bingöl, 2003). Although the distribution differs according to gender, dyslexia is 4-6 times more common in boys than in girls (Fielding-Barnsley, 2000: cited in Altuntaş, 2010).
CLASSIFICATION
There are three most commonly used basic classifications related to the classification of dyslexia in the literature. These are divided according to the problem encountered in people and the cause of this situation.
1. Classification According to Hemisphere Functions
Dyslexic people are divided into two as L-type and P-type according to hemisphere functions. The main point here is whether the person has a problem with the right or left hemisphere. Approximately 65% of dyslexic individuals are diagnosed as L-type or P-type dyslexic (Strien, 1997: Akt Doğan,2010).
a. L-Type Dyslexia
L-Type Dyslexia is associated with underdevelopment of the right hemisphere and overdevelopment of the left hemisphere. These children try to use left hemisphere strategies from the first step of learning to read; they skip the first step of the reading skill, which requires the help of the right hemisphere. L-type dyslexics have difficulties from the very first moment of learning to read. They read quickly but incorrectly (Strien, 1997:Act. Altuntaş,2010).
b. P-Type Dyslexia
Unlike L-type P-type dyslexia is related to more right hemisphere and underdevelopment of left hemisphere. They start to have problems after they progress, not at the stage of learning to read. The reason for this is that they cannot perform the hemisphere replacement process that needs to be done. Unlike L-type dyslexics, P-type dyslexic individuals read slowly but read accurately (Strien, 1997:Act. Altuntaş,2010).
2. Developmental and acquired dyslexia
a. Developmental Dyslexia
It is expressed as a biologically-based difficulty that appears during learning to read without any brain damage, develops despite adequate education and environment, and is experienced since childhood (Bingöl, 2003).
b. Acquired Dyslexia
It is a reading disability that occurs as a result of mental functions being damaged or destroyed as a result of brain damage (Gustafson & Samuelson, 1999: cited in Altuntaş,2010).
3. Perceptual-Based Classifications
In this group of perceptual problems, there are 3 sub-headings as visual, auditory and mixed dyslexia.
• Visual Dyslexia
Problems in visual perception negatively affect learning to read. People in this group have difficulties with visual discrimination. For this reason, they confuse letters and words with similar spelling. They have difficulty in producing words from given letters, using visual memory, reading quickly, and doing puzzles (Johnson & Myklebust, 1967: cited in Altuntaş,2010).
• Auditory Dyslexia
Although reading skill is based on visual symbols, many auditory points are very important in learning to read. Those in this group have difficulty with phonetic analysis. They cannot distinguish letters and words that are close to each other. They cannot make auditory inferences. They have difficulty identifying the sounds in the words they hear. It is common for these individuals with auditory memory problems to forget the sound of a letter or the pronunciation of a word. (Johnson and Myklebust, 1967: Cited by Altuntaş,2010).
• Mixed Dyslexia
They experience both visual and auditory dyslexics. They have difficulties in both writing letters and words and remembering the sounds of the letters (Sarıpınar, 2006).
TREATMENT
SPECIAL EDUCATION
In general, special education practice is active in the treatment of specific learning difficulties. In this program, an Individualized Education Program (IEP) specific to that student should be prepared for each student in accordance with that student’s performance.
The program prepared for individuals in need of special education includes the needs of the individual, his/her family and teachers.
The performance of the individual at that time, short-term goals, long-term goals, duration, methods to be applied can be said as the basic elements that the program should include (Altuntaş, 2010).
Inclusion, which is considered as the least restrictive environment in which a student with a disability will be in the same class with his/her peers, is one of the methods operating in our country.
PASS THEORY
According to JPDas, dyslexia and other reading difficulties are closely related to problems experienced in cognitive processes. He argues that the Pass theory will also be useful in the treatment of learning difficulties.(Das,2009)
Russian neuropsychologist and medical doctor Luria’s examinations on the functions of the brain and the findings of neuroimaging studies conducted so far reveal the foundations of the Pass theory. The PASS theory was put forward as an alternative to the traditional intelligence theories that exist today. The theory argues that knowledge is not a static ability that emerges in intelligence tests, but an active process of collation and processing of knowledge.
PASS theory includes intelligence; It is based on 4 mental processes as planning (planning), attention (attention), simultaneous (simultaneous) and successive processing.
Planning: The management of the planning process is in our Frontal lobe. Solution suggestions for solving a problem, maintaining an activity, what to say to someone who has lost a loved one, etc. The processes we use when we need to make decisions on issues are planning processes.
Attention (attention): It can be explained as the whole of cognitive processes responsible for the level of alertness and focusing on the stimulus desired from the individual, which is thought to be managed by the frontal lobe of the brain and the sub-sections of the cortex.
Simultaneous processing (simultaneous): The process related to the parietal and occipital lobes in the posterior part of the brain involves the grouping of different incoming stimuli and bringing them into a whole.
Successive processing: It is the process that includes the processing of incoming stimuli one by one and in order. To define the concept of democracy, bringing together and transferring information on the subject is simultaneous processing, and memorizing the definition of democracy word for word is an example of successive processing (Akademi Disleksi, Saraç, 2014)
PREP EDUCATION
The program, which argues that reading difficulty is caused by simultaneous processing and successive processing processes in the Pass theory, was built on these two processes and aimed to strengthen reading.
PREP is suitable for children who have been trained in reading but cannot read at the expected level of their chronological age. For this reason, it has been prepared to be applied to children in the 2nd grade and after.
PREP includes 4 successive processing and 4 simultaneous processing activities. For each activity, there are both Global studies, where reading skills are not required, and Bridge studies, which include strategies related to reading. These studies are also divided into three levels of difficulty. In this way, it is aimed that the student will both learn to produce a strategy in that area and progress in each activity by starting from the level appropriate for him.
PREP eğitimcinin yapmasını gerekeni net ve açık olarak belirterek standardı tutturmayı ve öğrencilerin verilen yönergeyi tam anlamıyla kavradığından emin olunmasını hedef edinmiştir.(Akademi Disleksi,2018)
ÖNERİ
Okuldaki ders esnasında tahtaya yazılan ifadeleri deftere geçirmekte zorlanma yaşanabilir. Bunun için notların yazılı, büyük puntolu ve renkli şekilde verilmesi daha fazla işe yarayacaktır.
Yaptıkları olumsuzluk ve yanlışları görmeyip yapılan olumlu davranışlar olumlu olarak pekiştirilmeli, birey bolca övülmeli özgüven anlamında desteklenmelidir.
Çok uzun ve karmaşıklık içeren cümleleri aklında tutma ve uygulamaya geçirme aşamasında zorlanabilirler. Bunun yerine daha kısa ve net cümleler kullanılmalı, istenen davranış için komutlar aynı anda en fazla iki tane verilmelidir.
Öğretim süreci görsellerle desteklenmeli, ödev ve sorumluluklarını içeren resimler hatırlatma amacıyla odasına ya da sürekli görebileceği yerlere asılmalı ve bol tekrar yapılmalıdır.
Uyum ve koordineli bir şekilde oluşturulan gruplara dahil edilmesi deneyim ve akran öğretimi konularında onlara fayda sağlayabilmektedir.
Konuların materyallerle desteklenmesi, çocukla birlikte materyal çalışmaları yapılması yaşayarak öğrenme açısından deneyim kazandırabilir, unutkanlık problemini azaltabilir.
Yapboz, sıralama, yerleştirme içeren oyunlarla görsel bellek düzeyine katkı sağlanabilir.
Kelime sayıları şeklinde bir oyunla işitsel-zihinsel bellek kapasitesi artırılabilir.(siyah kalem-iki kelime, annenin saçındaki toka-üç kelime)
Okumayı kolaylaştırmak amacıyla sadece okuması istenen cümle açıkta bırakılıp diğer kısımlar kapatılarak odaklanma ve doğru okuma yüzdesi artırılabilir(Green ve Reid,2017).
KAYNAKÇA
Altuntaş F. (2010) Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Disleksiye İlişkin Bilgileri Ve Dislektik Öğrencilere Yönelik Çalışmaları, Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
Akademi Disleksi,2018 , https://www.turkceprep.com/sayfa/pass-teorisi/, 01.12.2018 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
Akademi Disleksi,2018, https://www.turkceprep.com/sayfa/prep-nedir/, 01.12.2018 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statictical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth edition).
Bingöl A, (2003), Ankara’daki İlkokul 2. Ve 4. Sınıf Öğrencilerinde Gelişimsel Disleksi Oranı, Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Mecmuası Cilt 56, Sayı 2, S. 67-82
Çalış S, Karaca DT, Karaca O,Yiğit G, (2018), Disleksi Özgül Öğrenme Güçlüğü, 1.basım, İstanbul.
Das JP,(2009), Reading Difficulties and Dyslexia An Interpretation For Teachers
Demir, B. (2005). Okulöncesi ve ilköğretim birinci sınıfa devam eden öğrencilerde özel öğrenme güçlüğünün belirlenmesi. (Yayımlanmış yüksek lisans tezi). Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
Green S. , Reid G. (2017), Disleksi ile Başa Çıkmak İçin 100 Pratik Öneri, Arkadaş Yayınevi,Ankara
Gür,G (2013), Disleksili Bireylerde Erken Tanı Konmasının Önemi Ve Disleksi Eğitimlerinde Yurt İçi Ve Yurt Dışı Uygulamaların İncelenmesi Ve Karşılaştırılması, Yüksek Lisans Tezi
International Dyslexia Association, (2012) https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia , 29.11.2018 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
Khan A, (2007), Her Çocuk Özeldir, Hindistan.
Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, (2008), Özel Eğitim Ve Rehabilitasyon Merkezi Özel Öğrenme Güçlüğü Destek Eğitim Programı, Ankara
Korkmazlar, Ü.(2011) Ben Hasta Değilim: Çocuk Sağlığı ve Hastalıklarının Psikososyal Yönü, Güncellenmiş İkici Baskı, 182-196
Korkmazlar, Ü. (2016) Farklı Gelişen Çocuklar, Güncellenmiş 3.basım, 105-119
Saraç S.(2014), Okuma Güçlükleri ve Disleksi, Psikoloji Çalışmaları /Studies in Psychology
34-1 (2014) 71-77
Sarıpınar EG , (2006) , “Özgül Öğrenme Güçlüğü: Okuma Güçlüğünde Akademik Beceri Ve Duyusal-Motor İşlevleri Değerlendirme Testlerinin Kullanılabilirliği”, yayımlanmamış Yüksek lisans tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara
